History of Handwriting Analysis: Science is a Moving Target

With thanks to the generous assistance by writers of earlier publications¹

20th Century History in the Making

The Bordereau Story of a handwriting analysis that shook Europe and what followed in the chain of events 50 years on.

1894 Alfred Dreyfus, French Jewish army captain on the General staff. Falsely charged with delivering defense secrets to the Germans. Accused of High Treason, based on his supposed writing of a "bordereau" (memorandum) to the German military attaché. A famous French finger-print expert, Bertillon, identified Dreyfus as the writer, who was disgraced, banned and condemned to solitary confinement at Devil's Island. Events causing a wave of anti-Semitism in France. Handwriting Experts divided in camps, "Hired guns" defending Army and Establishment FOR Bertillon's Findings, others AGAINST, concluding that Dreyfus could not have written it. The writer Emile Zola passionately exposed the judicial farce of the Dreyfus trial in "J'Accuse". Ultimately full rehabilitation took place as late as 1906, well after 2 men involved with the forgery had confessed. Dreyfus was reinstated, promoted to Major and made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

1896 Theodor Herzl Hungarian lawyer and journalist, reporting the Dreyfus "Bordereau" trial was appalled by the wave of racial anti-Semitic prejudice. He became convinced that it could only be countered and resolved by the creation of a Jewish State. His pamphlet "Der Judenstaat" and the following Congress focused the movement towards Palestine, but it took a wave of mass killings orchestrated by Nazi Germany, silently condoned by indifference in many quarters, to lead in 1948, half a century after the Dreyfus case shook France, to the United Nations vote confirming Israel as a state: a country with a well founded interest in Handwriting analysis.

1929 Claire Carvalho and B Sparkes wrote "Crime in Ink" in memory of David Carvalho, a U.S. Detective and Forensic Handwriting Expert around 1900 with an extraordinary gift for investigative stories centered on the ink trail. His experience, his humanitarian approach, coupled with scientific methodology underpinned Zola's emotive appeal in the Dreyfus case.

From Observation to a Developing Science

1996, Florian Coulmas, Prof. dissects in "The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems" Graphology into its original Greek components "writing" + "discourse" as the study of handwriting from the point of view of diagnostic psychology.... "Ascertaining the authorship of handwritten documents is one of the areas where graphology has been put to practical use in the context of both historical and criminal investigations". Coulmas describes its employment in the screening of job applications as more controversial. "Clinical personality studies usually combine graphological tests with other psycho-diagnostic methods rather than relying on the analysis of handwriting alone".

Mid 90's Starzecpyzel Daubert hearing in U.S. Court found that forensic document examination "does not employ rigorous methodology". The finding leads to increased efforts to pursue scientific methods and standards in forensic handwriting analysis.

1990's Beyerstein BL&DF Evaluations of Graphology - the Write Stuff Evaluations of Graphology: Research and debate by Graphologists and Critics.

1990's Marcel B. Matley: The Beyerstein Book - A Critical Examination. Fascinating contribution to the above debate at the end of the 20th Century.

1993, Frits Cohen, Director of Graph-o-Logica Ltd (UK) and Daniel Wander (BA Psychol - Barrister) wrote wide-ranging "Handwriting Analysis at Work" , embracing "Gestalt", Occupational, I.T., Business and Professional aspects of script-psychology, Interpretative Handwriting Analysis. Now also published and translated in Eastern Europe (Hungary) and Asia (Indonesia, Malay).

1987, David Lester PhD Prof. of Psychology USA The Psychological basis of handwriting analysis. The relationship of Handwriting to personality and psychopathology. Presents compelling evidence that the outlook for handwriting analysis is very promising. Important reference work summarizing research on handwriting done in the preceding 50 years. With case studies.

1981, David Crystal, Prof. defines Graphology in "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language" as l. The (study of the) writing system of a language; 2. The analysis of handwriting to discover the writer's character.

1980, USA Library of Congress re-classified the subject of Analytical Graphology under three categories: Diagnostic graphology, Documentary evidence and Selection of Personnel.

1975, Shafir A, Hirsch M & Shepps S: Psychologists (Israel) first used graphology in conjunction with Bender, Gestalt, Draw-a-person and Rorschach testing methods in a research project using Jewish victims of the Holocaust, 1940-45.

1972, Betty Link CG published "Graphology, a Tool for Personnel Selection" , the first time handwriting analysis for U.S. business was put into one volume.

1969, Robert Backman: Curator Handwriting Analysis Research Library (Massachusetts) founded the library in 1949; incorporated in 1969. Has collected more than 70,000 graphological items, catalogued and made them available to students and researchers.

1966, Robert Heiss: PhD (Germany). Director of the Institute of Psychology and Characterology at the University of Freiburg, Germany. Handwriting Analysis used in the curriculum. Heiss organized handwriting into "Space, Form and Movement" and stated that all writing factors can be arranged under these headings. He wrote "Die Deutung der Handschrift".

1965, Alfred Kanfer: Graphologist. Developed a magnification system (enlarged 500 to 1,000 times) for discovering the early signs of cancer in the writing stroke. Worked for 30 years with the Hospital for Joint Diseases and for Strang Clinic in New York. Reputedly 85% accurate.

1960's, Klara Roman's "Encyclopedia of The Written Word". Up to date research, result of a lifetime of study, experimental and clinical work in graphology and related disciplines such as the psychology, physiology and history of writing. Leading from l9th Century Trait concepts to the 20th Century Gestalt conception concerning the place of writing in the wider constellation of man's arts and activities. A 'dictionary of writing, the written word, and the writer himself'.

1954, Thewlis, Dr M W & Swezy Isabelle C. (Wakefield R.I.) Wrote "Handwriting and Emotions" , an in-depth study of nervous diseases and the effect of the emotions on handwriting.

1954, Rudolph Pophal: Neurologist & PhD (Germany) Founded a Graphological Research Institute in Hamburg, Germany, continuing Wilhelm Preyer's research (see 1895), Professor of Physiology. Studied handwriting as "brain writing" as reflected in physiological movements of tension and release.

1949, Rose Wolfson: Psychologist (Ann Arbor, Michigan) Found significant differences between writing of delinquent and non-delinquent persons.

1949, Ulrich Sonneman: PhD (New York) Conducted research projects using handwriting analysis in the New School for Social Research, New York City. His findings contributed to the use of graphology in clinical psychology.

1945, Max Pulver: Professor of Psychology (Switzerland) Wrote "Symbolik der Handschrift" which broadened graphic interpretations by applying psychoanalytical methods of Freud, Adler, Jung and Steckel.

1942, Werner Wolff: Graphologist (America). Published "Diagrams of the unconscious" to prove the consistency of personality as shown in the signature throughout one's life.

1940, Ludwig Klages: PhD, Philosopher (Germany) Wrote "Handschrift und Charakter", used as classic text in continental Europe. Fervent adherer to racialist Nazi concepts.

1939, Hans J Jacoby Wrote a textbook "Analysis of Handwriting" bringing the European method of analysis to England and America.

1930's, Robert Saudek: Research Graphologist (England). Analysis of different types of script. Considered and formulated criteria for discovering dishonesty in writing. Founded the first journal of graphology "Character and Personality" .

1930's, Gordon Allport, Philip Vernon: Psychologists (Harvard Psychological Clinic). Investigated expressive movement and included graphology in their tests.

Early Development of Graphology as a Science

1920's, Max Pulver: Philosopher and Psychologist (Switzerland). Developed the use of three zones of writing. Upper zone - abstract thinking; Middle zone - emotion; Lower zone - biological factors.

1920's, Bernard Wittlich: Psychologist (Germany). Developed a measuring scale and published manuals for students of medical, criminology and psychology classes.

1920, Klara Roman: PhD Psychologist (Hungary). Developed the psychogram as a method for measuring graphology factors. Invented the graphodyne to measure speed and pressure. Wrote "Handwriting a key to personality" , considered a leading textbook for modern American graphologists.

1919, June Downey: Psychologist, teacher (University of Iowa). Published "Graphology and the Psychology of Handwriting" . Taught the first graphology course in an American college.

1910/29 Albert S. Osborn's 1st and 2nd Edition of "Questioned Documents" introduces scientific methods and standards of handwriting comparison to prove genuineness or forgery in Law.

1910, Emil Kraepelin: Psychiatrist (Germany) Experimented in measurement of pressure and speed in the writing of normal and disturbed persons using his Kraepelin scale.

1905, Ludwig Klages: PhD, Philosopher (Germany). Considered to be the founder of German modern graphology. Combined all previous methods into a "Science of Expression" . Developed the principles of 'Form level and rhythm'.

1895, Wilhelm Preyer: Professor-physiology (Germany). Discovered the similarity of writing done with the left hand, right hand, toes or teeth - research based on disabled victims of war. Called all writing 'brain writing' to demonstrate the central origination of all writing.

1890, Rosa Baughan: Author (England) Wrote first graphology book in English, "Character indicated by Handwriting" .

1888-1914, Jean Crépieux-Jamin: Psychologist (France) The first 'Scientific Graphologist'. Developed the theory of resultants which stressed that the whole writing must be considered.

1872, Abbé Jean Hippolyte Michon: Priest, teacher (France). Coined the word 'graphology'. Published two very popular books - "Les Mystères de l'écriture" (1872) and "La Methode pratique de graphologie" (1878). In these the law of balance was formulated stressing a blending of interpretations with single trait interpretation.

Graphology Advanced

1860, Havelock Ellis: Psychologist (England). Used graphology to study the criminal mind. Worked with Alphonse Bertillon who developed identification through finger prints.

1830, Abbé Flandrin: Priest, teacher (France) Collected for thirty years thousands of writings and classified them by "elements of design in handwriting". Interpretation was a trait-for-a-stroke method.

1792, J Charles Grohmann: Professor - theology, philosophy (Germany). Published treatise "Examination of the possibility of inferring character from Handwriting".

1700's, Shelly Ayers and other English writing masters developed the Round Hand technique of writing which included flourishes, curved loops and ligatures. This style encouraged speed and fluency in writing.

1662, Camillo Baldi: Professor - philosophy, medicine (Italy). Published a study presenting a first method for judging a writer's nature from his letter formations.

1660's, Alderisuis Prosper: Physician (Italy). Published a study called "Ideographia" showing a systematic relationship between handwriting and personality traits.

Handwriting Observed

1060-1110 AD, Kuo Jo Hsu: Philosopher, painter of Sung period (China), "Handwriting infallibly shows us whether it comes from a vulgar or a noble minded person".

400 AD, Justinian: Emperor (Roman Empire). Impressed by the change in a handwriting with the changes in health and the advancement of old age.

120 AD, Suetonius Tranquillus: Historian (Roman Empire). Describing the writing of Emperor Augustus said: "I have above all remarked the following in his writing. He does not separate his words, nor does he carry over to the next line any excess letters; instead he places them under the final word and ties them to it with a stroke".

300 BC, Aristotle: Philosopher (Greece). "Spoken words are the symbols of mental experience and written words are the symbols of spoken words. Just as all men have not the same speech sounds, so all men have not the same writing".

1000 BC, Japanese scholars judged that character conformed to the way a man traces his bars according to the thickness, length, rigidity or suppleness.

Notes

1. Those writers or publishers who justifiably want their name and publications mentioned, and are not in our reference booklist, are invited to contact us.